Muscle fibre size in normal infants, children and adolescents: An autopsy study

doi:10.1016/0022-510X(71)90085-2

Journal of the Neurological Sciences

Volume 14, Issue 2, October 1971, Pages 171-182

https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-510X(71)90085-2 Get rights and content

Abstract

The results are reported of measurements of muscle fibre size, area and diameter in specimens of limb muscle obtained at autopsy from infants and children dying from acute infective illness or as a result of trauma. All observations were carried out upon transverse sections of paraffin-embedded muscle from deltoid, biceps brachii, rectus femoris and gastrocnemius; the results are analysed and are related to body height and growth. There is a steady increase in muscle fibre diameter and area with increasing body size for each muscle examined and we provide figures against which changes in abnormal muscle can be compared.

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Little is known about the skeletal muscle architecture of living humans at birth. In this study, we used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to measure the volumes of ten muscle groups in the lower legs of eight human infants aged less than three months. We then combined MRI and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to provide detailed, high-resolution reconstructions and measurements of moment arms, fascicle lengths, physiological cross-sectional areas (PCSAs), pennation angles and diffusion parameters of the medial (MG) and lateral gastrocnemius (LG) muscles. On average, the total lower leg muscle volume was 29.2 cm³. The largest muscle was the soleus muscle with a mean volume of 6.5 cm³. Compared to the LG muscles, the MG muscles had, on average, greater volumes (by ∼35%) and greater PCSAs (by ∼63%) but similar ankle-to-knee moment arm ratios (∼0.1 difference), fascicle lengths (∼5.7 mm difference) and pennation angles (∼2.7° difference). The MG data were compared with data previously collected from adults. The MG muscles of adults had, on average, a 63-fold greater volume, a 36-fold greater PCSA, and 1.7-fold greater fascicle length. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using MRI and DTI to reconstruct the three-dimensional architecture of skeletal muscles in living human infants. It is shown that, between infancy and adulthood, MG muscle fascicles grow primarily in cross-section rather than in length.
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During growth there are serious changes in the skeletal muscles to compensate for the changed requirements in terms of body weight and size. In this study, the age-dependent (between 21 and 100 days) mechanical and microstructural properties of rabbit soleus muscle tissue were investigated. For this purpose, morphological properties (animal mass, soleus muscle mass, tibial length) were measured at 5 different times during aging. On the other hand, fibre orientation-dependent axial and semi-confined compression experiments were realised. In addition, the essential components (muscle fibres, extracellular matrix, remaining components), dominating the microstructure of muscle tissue, were analysed. While the mechanical results show hardly any age-dependent differences, the morphological and microstructural results show clear age-dependent differences. All morphological parameters increase significantly (animal mass by 839.2%, muscle mass 1050.6%, tibial length 233.6%). In contrast, microstructural parameters change differently. The percentage of fibres (divided into slow-twitch (ST) and fast-twitch (FT) fibres) increases significantly (137.6%), while the proportions of the extracellular matrix and the remaining components (48.2% and 46.1%) decrease. At the same time, the cross-sectional area of the fibres increases significantly (697.9%). The totality of this age-dependent information provides a deeper understanding of age-related changes in muscle structure and function and may contribute to successful development and validation of growth models in the future.
This article reports the first comprehensive data set on age-dependent morphological (animal mass, soleus muscle mass, tibial length), mechanical (axial and semi-confined compression), and microstructural (muscle fibres, extracellular matrix, remaining components) properties of the rabbit soleus muscle. On the one hand, the results of this study contribute to the understanding of muscle mechanics and thus to understanding of load transfer mechanisms inside the muscle tissue during growth. On the other hand, these results are relevant to the fields of constitutive formulation of age-dependent muscle tissue.
John Walton
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Peripheral nerve maturation and excitability properties from early childhood: Comparison of motor and sensory nerves
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Citation Excerpt :
Motor amplitude increases logarithmically with age, while the sensory amplitude is established early and remains fairly constant, consistent with findings from standard nerve conduction studies (Parano et al., 1993; Cai and Zhang, 1997; Garcia et al., 2000). Given the overall parallel maturation of most sensory and motor excitability parameters, the discrepancy in development of the peak amplitude is likely due to progressive maturation of other motor unit components such as the neuromuscular junction and muscle fibres which continue to alter in size and fibre type distribution until late adolescence (Brooke and Engel, 1969; Aherne et al., 1971; Belanger and McComas, 1989). Importantly, the coherent trajectories of development in excitability parameters despite the differences in peak amplitude reflect the specificity of excitability techniques in recording motor axonal properties as distinct from the motor unit.
Understanding of maturational properties of sensory and motor axons is of central importance for determining the impact of nerve changes in health and in disease in children and young adults.
This study investigated maturation of sensory axons using axonal excitability parameters of the median nerve in 47 children, adolescents and young adults (25 males, 22 females; age range 1–25 years) and compared them to concurrent motor studies.
The overall pattern of sensory maturation was similar to motor maturation demonstrating prolongation of the strength duration time constant (P < 0.001), reduction of hyperpolarising threshold electrotonus (P = 0.002), prolongation of accommodation half-time (P = 0.005), reduction in hyperpolarising current-threshold slope (P = 0.03), and a shift to the right of the refractory cycle curve (P < 0.001), reflecting changes in passive membrane properties and fast potassium channel conductances. Sensory axons, however, had a greater increase in strength duration time constant and more attenuated changes in depolarising threshold electrotonus and current-threshold parameters, attributable to a more depolarised resting membrane potential evident from early childhood and maintained in adults. Peak amplitude was established early in sensory axons whereas motor amplitude increased with age (P < 0.001), reflecting non-axonal motor unit changes.
Maturational trajectories of sensory and motor axons were broadly parallel in children and young adults, but sensory-motor differences were initiated early in maturation.
Identifying the evolution of biophysical changes within and between sensory and motor axons through childhood and adolescence is fundamental to understanding developmental physiology and interpreting disease-related changes in immature nerves.
Relationship between the direction of mandibular growth and masseter muscle conduction velocity
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Introduction: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between muscle conduction velocity (MCV) of the masseter muscle and the direction of mandibular growth. Methods: Longitudinal cephalometric X-rays taken at the prepubertal and postpubertal periods of 16 Japanese girls were analyzed. MCV was calculated from the delay in myoelectric signals obtained by using multiple surface electrode arrays placed along the fibers of the left masseter muscle in the postpubertal period. The direction of mandibular growth was evaluated by superimposition of the lateral cephalometric X-rays at the prepubertal and postpubertal periods. The relationship between MCV and the direction of mandibular growth was analyzed statistically. Results: MCV was significantly correlated with the vertical facial height at the postpubertal period and the direction of mandibular condyle growth. Conclusions: If the relationship between prepubertal and postpubertal of MCV is clarified, it might be possible to predict the direction of mandibular growth and the vertical facial proportions at the postpubertal period from MCV of the masseter muscle at the prepubertal period.
Three-Dimensional Skeletal Muscle Architecture in the Lower Legs of Living Human Infants
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^☆: This study was aided by grants from the Muscular Dystrophy Associations of America, Inc., the Muscular Dystrophy Group of Great Britain and the Medical Research Council.

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Muscle fibre size in normal infants, children and adolescents: An autopsy study☆

Abstract

J. neurol. Sci.

J. neurol. Sci.

J. neurol. Sci.

J. neurol. Sci.

J. neurol. Sci.

J. neurol. Sci.

Diseases of Muscle

Quantitative methods in histology

J. med. Lab. Technol.

Change in fiber size in Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Neurology (Minneap.)

The size of muscle fibres in infants and children

Arch. Path.

The histographic analysis of human musele biopsies with regard to fiber types, Part 1 (Adult male and female)

Neurology (Minneap.)